ind possesses an elusive and mysterious quality: You can feel it but you can't see it. The direction of the slightest breeze can be determined by moistening a finger and turning it in the wind, because coolness from evaporation indicates the direction. This particular has often been metaphorically applied to moods and dispositions, e.i., political winds, winds of change, or winds of war. Elected officials often moisten their political fingers in order to determine the will of their constituents. People in different geographical environments or social class structures think differently. What is important to one group may not be given consideration by another group. A population might be culturally diverse in the same geographical locale. In colonial America, most of the population was concentrated along the Atlantic coastline, and their reasoning, logic, politics, and theology was generally uniform. As they migrated into new territories, belief systems gradually changed, due to new hardships and unexpected challenges. One of the most significant catalysts to encourage the movement of population in the history of American migration was the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. This action nearly doubled the size of the United States and energized an interest in moving west. In May of 1804, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark set out to explore and map the new territory, and by 1850 a steady march of adventurers had created 2,170 miles of wagon ruts labeled the Oregon Trail. Railroads were also being constructed across the plains with a transcontinental hookup finally occurring in 1869 at Promontory Summit near Ogden, Utah. The nation was slowly moving west.

Early Brethren Publications, BHLA

enry Kurtz was born in Germany in 1796 with aspirations for the ministry. After emigrating to America, he entered the Luther Synod and received his first pastorate in Pennsylvania. While studying the Bible he became convinced that faith was an essential part of baptism. A novel opinion for a Lutheran, and this position soon led to his excommunication. He moved to Ohio where he later met and joined the Brethren. Gradually he became deeply involved in roles of leadership. In a few years, Kurtz served as pastor, ordained elder, and writing clerk of Annual Meeting; a position which he held for almost twenty years. One reason being that he could intimately converse in both German and English, and the Brethren were in the midst of changing from exclusive use of German to English. The concern for denominational literature found its champion in Kurtz who had briefly attempted to publish a church paper while a Lutheran minister. A question presented to Annual Meeting in 1850 concerning denominational literature reawakened his enthusiasm for publishing, and he began to set in motion the publication of the first Brethren periodical.

Publishing began in a spring house

    The Gospel Visitor was first issued in 1851 from a hand-press located on the second floor of a spring house on a small farm in Ohio. It's appearance was professional and noteworthy considering the humbleness of its origin. Although not recognized as an official voice of the denomination because of it's personal emanation, delegates to the Annual Meeting of the same year decided that it's worthiness should be judged by all Brethren congregations until next year. James Quinter became assistant editor in 1856 with Henry Holsinger soon joining the team. Holsinger wanted to produce a weekly paper, and started the Christian Family Companion. It contained free expression of ideas from individual members which could then be read by the larger community, a new concept for the Brethren and a primal form of an Internet list server.

Primitive Christian Front

Rear

The two were eventually merged, and finally given the name The Primitive Christian. Quinter became the chief editor and Kurtz devoted his time to working on a Brethren Encyclopedia which first appeared in 1867. The Primitive Christian later absorbed the Pilgrim in 1876, another weekly paper issued by H.B. & J.B. Brumbaugh from James Creek, Pennsylvania. In the same year, J.T. Myers and L.A. Plate started the Brethren's Messenger from Germantown, Pennsylvania and then moved it to Lanark, Illinois with a new title, Brethren at Work. In 1883, these two papers were merged to form the Gospel Messenger. The word Gospel was later dropped and it's frequency of publication changed from weekly to monthly. James Quinter and H.B. Brumbaugh worked as co-editors. Messenger is still published by the General Offices at Elgin, Illinois. 

    As the free exchange of ideas manifested itself in Brethren books and periodicals, this exposure forced the Brethren to acknowledge the influence and values of the larger world and contributed to the widening gulf between progressives and conservatives. Before the appearance of Brethren literature, there was no published denominational voice except the minutes of decisions from Annual Conference. Until the emergence of these publications, the eldership had a firm grip on any denominational voice because they controlled the proceedings of Annual Conference. Now, the general membership would also have the opportunity to voice their personal opinions about church life or society through these periodicals. Compounding the issue for the Elders was the fact that each publication was not officially recognized by the denomination. These papers were the inspiration of lay persons, entrepreneurial undertakings without any outside controls on content or expression. Each editor was relatively free to make his publication become what he envisioned it should be, although there would naturally have been an environment of discretion on the part of the editor, if he wanted his paper to gain wide acceptance within the denomination. In a modern world of instant communication one might question why publications would have had a deleterious effect on some Brethren. It can be understood only if we strive to appreciate the mind set of the time. Communication was not the issue but its invasion of a sub-culture that viewed outside influences with suspicion. For example, if the controlling party of Annual Conference made specific decisions on matters of faith and practice, members now had an opportunity to voice their opinions about these decisions. The widespread reading of their opinions in these new publications also had a lobbying effect. Many other ingredients contributed to the attrition of the Brethren sub-culture, particularly matters of nonconformity. Usually this topic focused on clothing and apparel but it was a much larger issue that involved a direct challenges to historic Brethren understandings, such as decisions about nonparticipation in war, plus a whole new issue and subsequent call for professionalism in the ministry.

rethren were a sequestered people from the time of their beginnings in Schwarzenau under a hostile church-state environment. Forced into isolation because of their convictions and unwaveringly pursued by authorities, the Brethren naturally resisted conformity to the outside world.

Elder in typical Plain Dress

Although colonial liberty spared them from governmental harassment, their language and culture impeded their infusion. The name Germantown (town of Germans) represents their hesitancy to assimilate with others of foreign descent. Mostly living on farms or in rural areas helped to preserve their nonconformity. For dress-up events men typically wore plain dark clothing with few buttons, plus the obligatory large broad-brimmed hat. No tie! Folded up labels then created an open square just below the chin. Beards with or without mustache, but never mustache alone, because it reminded the Brethren of the mounted European cavalry officers who usually wore large mustaches. Women s dresses were usually plain (depending on the household) with few buttons and little or no trimmings such as ribbons. Many dresses had a triangular cape or bib that covered the upper-waist beginning at the outer crown of each shoulder and converging to a point near the center of the waist. Bonnets or coverings were strictly enforced for any women/girl who was a member. Although styles varied from home to home and congregation to congregation, the guiding principles of garment construction were simplicity, plainness, and modesty. Beside the functionality of covering the body, clothing also serves to convey inner motives and subtleties. Colors, trimmings, and ornaments enhance these predispositions. Bright red transmits a different message to others than dark blue. An over abundance of jewelry projects something far different than plainness. In the early part of the century, most garments were made at home where style and appearance was under family control. Towards the middle to latter part of the century, factory produced garments were more readily available and cheaper. The values of the outside world could now be displayed on the wearer and likewise influence the observer. As more Brethren started to wear factory made clothing, the gulf widened between those who accepted or resisted acculturation.

Participation in War

s one of the three historic peace advocate churches, the Church of the Brethren resists any involvement in war, the bearing of weapons, or the rendering of assistance to entities involved in the killing of human beings. However, this century introduced a war that challenged the Brethren position. The Civil War impacted this country, perhaps more so than any other single event because of the debilitating effects of internal conflict when brother fights against brother. Additionally, the ugliness of slavery demanded recognition, the immense economic aftermath changed the very structure of the federal government, and the death of President Lincoln created a national wound. The great majority of Brethren did not enlist, and many who did, refused to kill. Nonparticipant s paid heavy files or went to prison while others fled and resettled elsewhere. The general mood of the nation, resting on the momentum of the Revolutionary War did not yet recognize pacifism. Still fixed in the national conscience was the Minute Man who left field & farm to serve his country, and figures such as Patrick Henry who was immortalized for his declaration of "give me liberty, or give me death." The inconsistency of Brethren involvement in the Civil War began a process of debate within the denomination that had not previously existed. Pacifism had its roots in Anabaptist thought and was for the Brethren a given understanding. Why then did some Brethren leave their pacifist heritage for the battlefield? Was the Civil War unique among hostilities? Why the sudden tolerance of military participation? In his book, "Studies in Brethren History," page 268, Floyd Mallott shares an interesting observation.

"There is a direct relationship between participation
in government and participation in military service. 
In monarchical Europe the question of participation in 
government-and the attempt at directing society-did not 
occur. Only in the New World with its theory of democratic 
participation could the question be raised."

Professional Ministry

homas Jefferson was elected President of the United States of America in 1800, a very intellectually gifted man with an extraordinary vision for the new republic. Jefferson had earlier penned the Declaration of Independence during the colonial period and guided many voices crying for freedom. Now as President, Jefferson would guide this same nation into a new century, an interval that would prove to be a time of immense social and technological change. In 1779, Jefferson issued A Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge, a proposal to the Virginia Assembly suggesting that the state pay for the education of boys and girls for a minimum of three years. Although it failed to acquire enough votes, this paper gives us a clear idea of his perspective on education. Jefferson believed that an educated populace was the best guarantee of liberty. By studying history, people would understand how governments become corrupt and tyranny begins. During the election of 1800, while his own party was in turmoil and conflict, Jefferson wrote in a private letter: "I have sworn upon the altar of God, eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." He perceived that a good education and intellectual awareness were the major guardians of a free society. Although older universities such as Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth had been in operation for decades, nineteen new colleges received their charters from 1782 until 1802, and each institution is still in operation. In 1819, ex-president Thomas Jefferson became instrumental in the chartering of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, three miles west of his estate at Monticello, with additional devotion to planning the grounds, buildings, and curriculum. Basic education in colonial America was generally composed of reading, writing, arithmetic, and learning poems. Textbooks and paper was often scarce, so boys and girls frequently shared resources and memorized as much as possible. Basic materials usually consisted of a Primer, the Bible, and a Hornbook. Colonial education was usually for white students only. Non-white children were not privileged to attend school except in the rarest circumstance. In a society before radio, television, and computer games, most youth spent their evenings reading, much of the time from the Bible.

    The move towards higher education in America was a protracted experience, that steadily gained momentum in the first half of the Nineteenth Century. The first parochial school was founded in 1809 near Baltimore by Elizabeth Ann Seton. Boston’s English High School opens in 1821 with 102 students and in 1827, Massachusetts required every town of 500 families to support a high school. Emma Willard School was founded at the Troy Female Seminary near Troy, New York in 1821, by educator Emma Hart Willard, 34, to prove that women can master subjects such as mathematics and philosophy. In the next ten years, many towns in New England mandated elementary education.

Schisms of the 1880's

ultural modifications and innovations of this century had a cumulative effect. As more factors began changing the Brethren subculture, one of three things would usually happen; it would be resisted by those who did not want their heritage altered (the Primitives or Old Orders), it would be celebrated by those who delighted in progress (the Progressives), or it would be grudgingly accepted in silence by the majority (called the Conservatives). Exposure to new ideas and cultural relationships succeeded in making the more primitive Brethren intransigent toward change, whereas the explosion of industrial innovations and variously related opportunities delighted the more liberal Brethren. The neutral high-ground of the vast number of moderates did not provide sufficient calm to inhibit the later secession of both these more extreme groups.

    All of the cultural factors enumerated in the preceding sections of this document produced two very separate minority factions during the Nineteenth century. Industrialism, participation in war, and a professional ministry irreversibly changed the inner soul of many Brethren, with the contributing element of Brethren publications quickly transporting these opinions and observations throughout the denomination. Socially forced exposure to new concepts removed the Brethren's ability to remain sheltered in a protected subculture. Progressives gladly accepted the innovations of this century, and tried to influence their fellow Brethren to do likewise, but the primitives or Old Orders (also called Ancient Brethren) regarded this as a worldly invitation to dismiss proven cherished values, feeling threatened with the loss of control over their heritage. Predictably, each group viewed the other with mild suspicion which only increased the probability of a cultural collision. For many years prior to the schisms, Annual Meeting was the arena of dissidence where Progressives, Primitives, and Conservatives frequently and tearfully collided over parliamentary questions regarding social conventions, methods of worship, and denominational policy.

    Something else was gradually changing during this century; a population shift was occurring in which a substantial increase of people resided in more urban areas. In the 1790 U.S. census, only three percent of the population lived in the six largest cities, but in only one-half century, that increased to sixteen percent. More of the Brethren were being urbanized, and agrarianism reflected the life style of fewer people. Gradually a new, more sophisticated face began to appear on the denominational countenance along with a revised system of values. Life in the country, even among non-farming people, is more intricately woven into the process of agriculture, with planting and harvesting accomplished through dependence on favorable weather. Because of this trust on nature, God becomes more central to thought, activities, and planning. Life on the urban scene is a mélange of human construction in glass, asphalt, steel, and concrete. Urbanites depend to a greater extent on ingenuity and social economy than divine providence. Country folk enjoy simple living while towns people run the gauntlet of complexity. If the expanse of open country invites communication and hospitality, the close quarters of town life overwhelms people with fear and distrust. Both natures are subtlety exhibited in beliefs, conduct, dress, expectations, and utilization of materials.

    Modernists snicker at the questions of propriety that arose during this century: "Should one allow carpeting? Should one install lightning rods? Should one allow photographs?" But these arguments uniquely reflected the social climate of that day, and the modernist is reminded that similar questions of culture exist today over abortion, civil rights, economic disparity, genetic engineering, and sexuality. Only the labels have changed, for people residing in culturally different localities will predictably disagree over social conventions, ethics, and theology because they perceive their environment and their God much differently.

    Culturally different voices gave expression at Annual Meeting representing fundamentally different perceptions of the Brethren experience. The Old Orders or Primitives viewed members, although in separate congregations, as single units of the greater body of the church. Elders supervised individual congregations and stood in harmony with each other at the Annual Meeting; thus, the yearly gathering was esteemed as the ultimate seat of denominational authority. Furthermore, it was held every year on Pentecost, so as to parallel their decision making with the original infilling of the Holy Spirit. This almost mystical association was to hopefully invite the Spirit to, likewise, fill the attendants of Annual Meeting with spiritual wisdom to make the proper decisions. Additionally, these decisions were arrived through consensus or unanimity of opinion, so as to maintain harmony throughout the body. Conversely, Progressives viewed members as units of autonomous congregations which did not necessarily require a yearly conference; thus, each congregation should be its own seat of authority. Furthermore, the innovation of democratic rule (by majority) at Annual Meeting was heralded as progress, because it hastened parliamentary action, instead of the protracted discussions necessary to arrive at consensus. Unfortunately, this always produces a minority opinion which lacks the unanimity and harmony of consensus enjoyed by the Primitives or Old Orders. During the 1870's, a small Progressive group began leading the church to implement innovations that were considered by the vast majority of moderates as too worldly. At the same time, a small group of Old Orders desired implementation of measures to preserve historic values that were similarly perceived by the moderates as too restrictive. The insistence of each group to have their own way fractured the German Baptist Brethren, with the Older Orders breaking away from Annual Meeting in 1881 to form the Old German Baptist Brethren; and two years after Progressive leader H.R. Holsinger was repudiated or disowned by the Annual Meeting of 1882, this more liberal arm seceded to form The Brethren Church. These divisions actually freed the central group of moderates (called Conservatives) from the insistence of both parties, to finally regain the momentum of their own denominational vision. But it would take years for that vision to crystallize, because the constant infighting at Annual Meeting had left them without a clear identity.

    Although dismayed by the series of events for many years, the moderates gradually devised a course for the future. In the 1904-1906 Annual Meetings they felt the need for a new identity with a new denominational name, for at least three reasons: (1) Brethren had been predominately speaking English since about 1850, (2) the label German gradually seemed less and less descriptive of their evolving culture, and (3) a new label would hopefully disassociate them from the unpleasant divisiveness of the recent past. Originally known as the Schwarzenau Baptists, they assumed the name of German Baptist Brethren in their New World migrations, since few people in America would have any idea where Schwarzenau is located. Much aware that they were no longer strictly German and now also eschewing the title Baptist, the remaining word Brethren was the only thing left that would still retain their heritage. In 1908, Annual Conference (previously called Annual Meeting) would formally adopt the denominational label, Church of the Brethren. They were...

...starting a new century with a new name.

Photo Credits:

• Spring House photo submitted by Richard Judy from The History of the Church of the Brethren: Northeastern Ohio, 1914, and drawn from memory by Irene Kurtz Summers, granddaughter of Elder Henry Kurtz, and retouched by Mrs. F.E. Moherman.
• Photo of Elder Christian Winey, a dearly beloved gentle spirit, who exhibited strong and caring leadership in the Lost Creek COB (now Bunkertown, PA Southern)
• Graphic collection of early Brethren publications from Brethren Historical Library & Archives.

Brethren Bibliography A resource of Brethren, Anabaptist, and Pietist literature