Acculturation of the Brethren in the
Nineteenth Century
Written by Ronald J.
Gordon ~ Published February, 1996 ~ Last Updated, November, 2000 ©
This document may be reproduced for non-profit or educational
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any
innovations of the Nineteenth Century irreversibly changed the Brethren who were
mostly rurally situated, agriculturally minded, and moderately suspicious of
outside influences. In the 1700's and early 1800's the Brethren easily managed
to insulate themselves from the influences of American society due to their
German sub-culture and rural location. What proved to complicate matters was the
fact that while the more primitive rural Brethren generally abstained or
refrained from technological innovations and more worldly social conventions,
many of their urban counterparts were embracing both. Annual
Conference (then called Annual Meeting), the denominational forum
regularly became a factious arena where cultural and theological lines were
clearly drawn between the more primitive Brethren (also called Old Orders,
Ancient Brethren) and their progressive counterparts (also called The
Progressives). This century dramatically restructured the social and
theological framework of the German Baptist Brethren, and here are some of the
contributing factors.
Different
Winds
ind possesses an
elusive and mysterious quality: You can feel it but you can't see it. The
direction of the slightest breeze can be determined by moistening a finger and
turning it in the wind, because coolness from evaporation indicates the
direction. This particular has often been metaphorically applied to moods and
dispositions, e.i., political winds, winds of change, or winds of war. Elected
officials often moisten their political fingers in order to determine the will
of their constituents. People in different geographical environments or social
class structures think differently. What is important to one group may not be
given consideration by another group. A population might be culturally diverse
in the same geographical locale. In colonial America, most of the population was
concentrated along the Atlantic coastline, and their reasoning, logic, politics,
and theology was generally uniform. As they migrated into new territories,
belief systems gradually changed, due to new hardships and unexpected
challenges. One of the most significant catalysts to encourage the movement of
population in the history of American migration was the Louisiana Purchase
of 1803. This
action nearly doubled the size of the United States and energized an interest in
moving west. In May of 1804, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark set out to
explore and map the new territory, and by 1850 a steady march of adventurers had
created 2,170 miles of wagon ruts labeled the Oregon Trail. Railroads were also
being constructed across the plains with a transcontinental hookup finally
occurring in 1869 at Promontory Summit near Ogden, Utah. The nation was slowly
moving west.
Included in this westward ambulation was a small Brethren Migration, first traveling on the Ohio River from Pittsburgh into Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Eventually the lure of cheap land and freedom encouraged them to move all the way to the Pacific coast where they established several congregations. So heavily did the Brethren populate the mid-west and far-west that in 1822, Annual Meeting was first held to the west of the traditional thin Atlantic coastline. In the next fifty years, cultural adjustments for the Brethren were profoundly challenging as they felt the social effects of different winds. Brethren in the east were close knit whereas their western counterparts were scattered. Harmony between churches was comfortably maintained in the east, but western Brethren were separated from each other by hundreds of miles. In some cases, they were too few in number to even build a church. Western congregations generally lacked economic resources while eastern Brethren enjoyed financial stability. Easterners in general were able to communicate news quickly, but sparsely populated westerners received news intermittently. Fellowship, affirmation, consensus, and bonding was lacking in the west. Conversely, eastern Brethren relished these particulars. Although basic doctrines and practices remained somewhat unaffected during the initial migrations, the Brethren were incrementally digressing into two entirely different worlds, and denominational conversation soon gave evidence of these different winds. Eastern Brethren were strongly aligned through tradition, supervised by the Eldership and predictably looked to Annual Meeting as a place to settle matters of discord. Western Brethren were more loosely aligned through a common mystic of survival in a harsh and unforgiving territory, and did not esteem Annual Meeting with the same degree of passion as their eastern counterparts.
Concerned voices appealed to Annual Meeting for a remedy to the situation. One such appeal for unity was for the creation of denominational literature that would serve as a central platform for the dissemination of news and the discussion of ideas. Although separated by great distances, Brethren literature could bridge the geographical and social gap with articles, news, and human interest stories. However, these publications only shifted the location of the dialog. Additionally, new winds began to move an aggregate body into distinct groups: liberal and conservative, traditional and progressive, innovative and plain.
 Early Brethren Publications, BHLA |
enry Kurtz was born in
Germany in 1796 with aspirations for the ministry. After emigrating to America,
he entered the Luther Synod and received his first pastorate in Pennsylvania.
While studying the Bible he became convinced that faith was an essential part of
baptism. A novel opinion for a Lutheran, and this position soon led to his
excommunication. He moved to Ohio where he later met and joined the Brethren.
Gradually he became deeply involved in roles of leadership. In a few years,
Kurtz served as pastor, ordained elder, and writing clerk of Annual Meeting; a
position which he held for almost twenty years. One reason being that he could
intimately converse in both German and English, and the Brethren were in the
midst of changing from exclusive use of German to English. The concern for
denominational literature found its champion in Kurtz who had briefly attempted
to publish a church paper while a Lutheran minister. A question presented to
Annual Meeting in 1850 concerning denominational literature reawakened his
enthusiasm for publishing, and he began to set in motion the publication of the
first Brethren periodical.
 Publishing began in a spring house |
The Gospel Visitor was first issued in 1851 from a hand-press located on the second floor of a spring house on a small farm in Ohio. It's appearance was professional and noteworthy considering the humbleness of its origin. Although not recognized as an official voice of the denomination because of it's personal emanation, delegates to the Annual Meeting of the same year decided that it's worthiness should be judged by all Brethren congregations until next year. James Quinter became assistant editor in 1856 with Henry Holsinger soon joining the team. Holsinger wanted to produce a weekly paper, and started the Christian Family Companion. It contained free expression of ideas from individual members which could then be read by the larger community, a new concept for the Brethren and a primal form of an Internet list server.
Primitive
Christian Front |
 Rear |
The two were eventually merged, and finally given the name The Primitive Christian. Quinter became the chief editor and Kurtz devoted his time to working on a Brethren Encyclopedia which first appeared in 1867. The Primitive Christian later absorbed the Pilgrim in 1876, another weekly paper issued by H.B. & J.B. Brumbaugh from James Creek, Pennsylvania. In the same year, J.T. Myers and L.A. Plate started the Brethren's Messenger from Germantown, Pennsylvania and then moved it to Lanark, Illinois with a new title, Brethren at Work. In 1883, these two papers were merged to form the Gospel Messenger. The word Gospel was later dropped and it's frequency of publication changed from weekly to monthly. James Quinter and H.B. Brumbaugh worked as co-editors. Messenger is still published by the General Offices at Elgin, Illinois.
As the free exchange of ideas manifested itself in Brethren books and periodicals, this exposure forced the Brethren to acknowledge the influence and values of the larger world and contributed to the widening gulf between progressives and conservatives. Before the appearance of Brethren literature, there was no published denominational voice except the minutes of decisions from Annual Conference. Until the emergence of these publications, the eldership had a firm grip on any denominational voice because they controlled the proceedings of Annual Conference. Now, the general membership would also have the opportunity to voice their personal opinions about church life or society through these periodicals. Compounding the issue for the Elders was the fact that each publication was not officially recognized by the denomination. These papers were the inspiration of lay persons, entrepreneurial undertakings without any outside controls on content or expression. Each editor was relatively free to make his publication become what he envisioned it should be, although there would naturally have been an environment of discretion on the part of the editor, if he wanted his paper to gain wide acceptance within the denomination. In a modern world of instant communication one might question why publications would have had a deleterious effect on some Brethren. It can be understood only if we strive to appreciate the mind set of the time. Communication was not the issue but its invasion of a sub-culture that viewed outside influences with suspicion. For example, if the controlling party of Annual Conference made specific decisions on matters of faith and practice, members now had an opportunity to voice their opinions about these decisions. The widespread reading of their opinions in these new publications also had a lobbying effect. Many other ingredients contributed to the attrition of the Brethren sub-culture, particularly matters of nonconformity. Usually this topic focused on clothing and apparel but it was a much larger issue that involved a direct challenges to historic Brethren understandings, such as decisions about nonparticipation in war, plus a whole new issue and subsequent call for professionalism in the ministry.
rethren were a
sequestered people from the time of their beginnings in Schwarzenau under a
hostile church-state environment. Forced into isolation because of their
convictions and unwaveringly pursued by authorities, the Brethren naturally
resisted conformity to the outside world.
 |
| Elder in typical Plain Dress |
Although colonial liberty spared them from governmental harassment, their language and culture impeded their infusion. The name Germantown (town of Germans) represents their hesitancy to assimilate with others of foreign descent. Mostly living on farms or in rural areas helped to preserve their nonconformity. For dress-up events men typically wore plain dark clothing with few buttons, plus the obligatory large broad-brimmed hat. No tie! Folded up labels then created an open square just below the chin. Beards with or without mustache, but never mustache alone, because it reminded the Brethren of the mounted European cavalry officers who usually wore large mustaches. Women s dresses were usually plain (depending on the household) with few buttons and little or no trimmings such as ribbons. Many dresses had a triangular cape or bib that covered the upper-waist beginning at the outer crown of each shoulder and converging to a point near the center of the waist. Bonnets or coverings were strictly enforced for any women/girl who was a member. Although styles varied from home to home and congregation to congregation, the guiding principles of garment construction were simplicity, plainness, and modesty. Beside the functionality of covering the body, clothing also serves to convey inner motives and subtleties. Colors, trimmings, and ornaments enhance these predispositions. Bright red transmits a different message to others than dark blue. An over abundance of jewelry projects something far different than plainness. In the early part of the century, most garments were made at home where style and appearance was under family control. Towards the middle to latter part of the century, factory produced garments were more readily available and cheaper. The values of the outside world could now be displayed on the wearer and likewise influence the observer. As more Brethren started to wear factory made clothing, the gulf widened between those who accepted or resisted acculturation.
Industrialization
James
Watt. Few other single inventions have so vastly contributed to world
progress than the efficient utilization of steam power. With the discovery of
the principle of electromagnetic induction, generators powered by steam began
making electricity available on a limited scale. Industrialization spread to
America between 1800 and 1850 which led to spectacular growth in population,
land acquisition, and wealth. Following are the more significant inventions of
the first half of the Nineteenth Century; steam locomotive (1804), photography
(ca. 1826), grain reaper (1831), gas refrigeration (1834), telegraph (1836),
pneumatic tire (1845), sewing machine (1846); and immediately followed by the
internal-combustion engine, dynamite, typewriter, telephone, incandescent
light, and the automobile. Steam power running heavy machinery incorporated
with electricity enabled factories to cheaply mass produce what had previously
been done laboriously by hand. The proliferation of new things was a constant
temptation, especially for a sub-culture like the Brethren who desired
simplicity and plainness.
he Industrial
Revolution began in Great Britain soon after the invention of the steam
engine, and especially it's lucrative improvement in 1760 by
The use of some "new things or ways" precipitated heated debate at Annual Conference that was not always resolved the same year. The installation of lightning rods was one of the first to initiate controversy in the Brethren camp, since many regarded them a lack of faith in God's providential care. This question was presented to Annual Conference over a period of several years with the final decision "advising" the Brethren to neither install or remove them, but place their trust in God; however, it also pleaded with members to accept each others individual choice. This was a surprising display of tolerance at a time when Brethren were often viewed as dogmatic authoritarians. Other issues would also make the journey to Annual Conference such as carpeting on floors, photographs, life insurance, and incurring debt with interest. The rural and more conservative mind often viewed these innovations with immediate suspicion. Perhaps, because the very ownership of gadgets and seemingly useless devices was foreign to a culture whose European period was typified by constant migration to avoid persecution. When death becomes an imminent reality, possessions often have little meaning. In the new world, many Brethren were involved with farming, a simplistic life style that had existed for thousands of years without numerous devices and gadgetry. Additionally, the possession of certain machinery invites control from the factory which produces it. In other words, the aversion to a device may not be a device itself, but the fear of one's life being later controlled by outside forces.
Participation in War
s one of the three
historic peace advocate churches, the Church of the Brethren resists any
involvement in war, the bearing of weapons, or the rendering of assistance
to entities involved in the killing of human beings. However, this century
introduced a war that challenged the Brethren position. The Civil War
impacted this country, perhaps more so than any other single event because
of the debilitating effects of internal conflict when brother fights against
brother. Additionally, the ugliness of slavery demanded recognition, the
immense economic aftermath changed the very structure of the federal
government, and the death of President Lincoln created a national wound. The
great majority of Brethren did not enlist, and many who did, refused to
kill. Nonparticipant s paid heavy files or went to prison while others fled
and resettled elsewhere. The general mood of the nation, resting on the
momentum of the Revolutionary War did not yet recognize pacifism. Still
fixed in the national conscience was the Minute Man who left field &
farm to serve his country, and figures such as Patrick Henry who was
immortalized for his declaration of "give me liberty, or give me
death." The inconsistency of Brethren involvement in the Civil War
began a process of debate within the denomination that had not previously
existed. Pacifism had its roots in Anabaptist thought and was for the
Brethren a given understanding. Why then did some Brethren leave their
pacifist heritage for the battlefield? Was the Civil War unique among
hostilities? Why the sudden tolerance of military participation? In his
book, "Studies in Brethren History," page 268, Floyd Mallott
shares an interesting observation.
"There is a direct relationship between participation in government and participation in military service. In monarchical Europe the question of participation in government-and the attempt at directing society-did not occur. Only in the New World with its theory of democratic participation could the question be raised."
If Mallott's observation is valid, then Brethren involvement in national government could be antithetical to it's pacifistic heritage. Yet if abstention from politics is desirable, how then may Brethren participate in the "directing of society?" The next century would experience two world conflicts with a higher percentage of Brethren involved in each. The modern Church of the Brethren maintains its official appellation of a
Professional Ministry
ree ministry was
observed in Brethren congregations so as to keep the allegiance of the
speaker in harmony with the Holy Spirit and not diminished by financial
conflicts with the congregation. Ministers did not receive a salary, wage,
or stipend for their spiritual contributions. For this reason it was not
uncommon for a church to have several ministers who earned a living from a
separate occupation. There were few, if any, salaried Brethren ministers
during the first half of the Nineteenth Century. Some were farmers while
others were skilled craftsmen and various methods were used in their
selection. The candidate would then meet in a closed room for an interview
with the Elders, because only the latter understood the actual sentiment and
plurality of congregations (see expanded below). Installation began a
process that would eventually advance them through
Depending on the location and size of the congregation, ministers were generally selected or elected along the following scheme. As the congregation sensed the need for an additional minister, each member would privately spend time considering which of the young men of the congregation would be most suited for the office. Elders from nearby congregations would convene a special day of examination to question members on their choice. One by one each member would go into a private room with the elders and respond to questions regarding their preference. There were no ballots or nominations, for this was selection by plurality. After reviewing the entire membership, the elders would emerge to inform the congregation of their decision. This practice was later challenged because it may allow a minority of voices to select a minister. During the last half of the century, new voices called for open elections with ballots and nominations so that any selection would be consequential to a majority of the congregation. Traditional voices did not like the democratic scheme because it appeared to exclude the guidance of the Holy Spirit in concert with the eldership. Voices of change were further reminded that when elders pronounced the winning candidate, they would then ask the congregation for unanimous consent which did require a majority opinion.
As times changed, so did the role of the pastor. Ministers generally did not receive advanced education, but relied on their own study of the Bible, as well as personal experiences in the vast arena of life. Rural oriented Brethren from a slower pace began moving to cities, and experienced the faster pace of city life which required the pastor to assume a more 'executive type' role within the church. Instead of congregations personally involved in witnessing, programs were instituted by churches to transfer money to other agencies with specialized resources for witnessing. As the identity of the church changed, so did the role of its pastor. Instead of the more traditional role of preacher, the minister began to assume the role of program director. This new role required the pastor to be more of an executive than a layman who would 'stall the horses and put on the preach'n hat.' Toward the end of the century, the Brethren founded Colleges which produced a more educated candidate for ministry and missionary work. As increasing numbers of ministers graduated from these schools, many congregations openly expressed a desire for an educated pastor instead of the crude rural preacher, the Dumb Dunkard was the common terminology. The traditional Brethren contended for an Eldership controlled selection process, arguing that elders in harmony with the Holy Spirit was the most reliable process. Younger men desired the 'nomination & ballot' method, so as to remove control from Elders in closed rooms. Ministers with education and occupational preparation became the requisite of many congregations, and with an increase in ministers assuming professional status, congregations gradually modified their individual responsibility to the community because they began transferring money to other agencies that would perform these duties. Additionally, single role ministers serving as pastors needed more training to facilitate their congregations. Education was becoming a necessary part of ministerial preparation and a formal school to educate the pastor for the modern congregation became inevitable. In 1905, Albert C. Wieand and Emanuel B. Hoff founded Bethany Bible School in a private home in Chicago after learning that Brethren ministerial candidates were planning to enroll in the nearby Moody Bible School. In spite of continuing opposition to higher education, the Van Buren street campus of Bethany Biblical Seminary was garnered by the Church of the Brethren in 1925. After more than forty years of service, a new facility was constructed west of the Chicago area near the community of Oak Brook, and the name was later changed to Bethany Theological Seminary. The school moved once again to Richmond, Indiana in 1994 to share the campus of the Earlham School of Religion. As the Nineteenth Century was drawing to a close, professional education and Brethren ministerial preparation were becoming synonymous.
homas Jefferson was
elected President of the United States of America in 1800, a very intellectually
gifted man with an extraordinary vision for the new republic. Jefferson had
earlier penned the Declaration of Independence during the colonial period and
guided many voices crying for freedom. Now as President, Jefferson would guide
this same nation into a new century, an interval that would prove to be a time
of immense social and technological change. In 1779, Jefferson issued A Bill
for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge, a proposal to the Virginia Assembly
suggesting that the state pay for the education of boys and girls for a minimum
of three years. Although it failed to acquire enough votes, this paper gives us
a clear idea of his perspective on education. Jefferson believed that an
educated populace was the best guarantee of liberty. By studying history, people
would understand how governments become corrupt and tyranny begins. During the
election of 1800, while his own party was in turmoil and conflict, Jefferson
wrote in a private letter: "I have sworn upon the altar of God, eternal
hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." He
perceived that a good education and intellectual awareness were the major
guardians of a free society. Although older universities such as Harvard, Yale,
and Dartmouth had been in operation for decades, nineteen new colleges received
their charters from 1782 until 1802, and each institution is still in operation.
In 1819, ex-president Thomas Jefferson became instrumental in the chartering of
the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, three miles west of his estate at
Monticello, with additional devotion to planning the grounds, buildings, and
curriculum. Basic education in colonial America was generally composed of
reading, writing, arithmetic, and learning poems. Textbooks and paper was often
scarce, so boys and girls frequently shared resources and memorized as much as
possible. Basic materials usually consisted of a Primer, the Bible, and a
Hornbook. Colonial education was usually for white students only. Non-white
children were not privileged to attend school except in the rarest circumstance.
In a society before radio, television, and computer games, most youth spent
their evenings reading, much of the time from the Bible.
The move towards higher education in America was a protracted experience, that steadily gained momentum in the first half of the Nineteenth Century. The first parochial school was founded in 1809 near Baltimore by Elizabeth Ann Seton. Boston’s English High School opens in 1821 with 102 students and in 1827, Massachusetts required every town of 500 families to support a high school. Emma Willard School was founded at the Troy Female Seminary near Troy, New York in 1821, by educator Emma Hart Willard, 34, to prove that women can master subjects such as mathematics and philosophy. In the next ten years, many towns in New England mandated elementary education.
A continued emphasis on spiritual and community
attributes instead of more worldly education gave the Brethren a primitive
stereotype which often elicited the phrase - Dumb Dunkard. It was an
undeserved phrase which troubled some Brethren and propelled them to the
point of creating schools that would educate their youth into a more refined
citizenry. They wanted to erase that plebeian caricature once and for all,
while others felt comfortable in the pursuit of spiritual education without
regard to worldly appellations. Progressives wanted their youth to excel in
academia, while others noted that ignorant Galilean fishermen turned the
world upside down without a formal education, that God seeks the lowly to
confound the wise: But God hath chosen the foolish
things of the world to confound the wise; and God hath chosen the weak
things of the world to confound the things which are mighty; And base things
of the world, and things which are despised, hath God chosen, yea, and
things which are not, to bring to nought things that are: That no flesh
should glory in his presence" 1 Corinthians 1:27-29.
Tensions arose which created strong feelings about the course of the
denomination. Factions evolved that later contributed to the Schisms of
1881-1882. Momentum for the establishment of Brethren colleges and
universities was not a denominationally coordinated effort, but rather an
interspersed energy rising from the vision of unrelated individuals at
different times in various geographical locations, starting with Juniata
College in 1876 and ending with Elizabethtown College in 1899. Annual
Meeting uniformily declined to assume any degree of ownership in the
colleges and further stipulated that the word Brethren should not be
included in the school label.
Brethren Affiliated Colleges
igher education was
not a significant issue for the German Baptist Brethren until the latter
half of the century. Determined to preserve their rural German sub-culture,
the Brethren modestly resisted the concept of higher education at the family
level for two principal reasons: they were a hard working people immediately
concerned with making a living and viewed formal education as a luxury,
additionally there was a significant fear that outside social influences,
especially of campus life, would alter the spiritually established
principles of their young men and women. Minutes from Annual Meeting fail to
exhibit a formal denominational prohibition to public education, but
acceptance of college education was resisted from the first petition in 1831
until the middle of the century when a complete reversal occured in 1858.
This was predictable because so many Brethren were either attending or
teaching in colleges and universities. Leading the movement to higher
education were the more progressive Brethren who believed that their youth,
and the denomination as a whole, may quickly fall behind other religious
bodies who openly supported the idea of colleges and seminaries. During the
last half of the Nineteenth Century, literally hundreds of colleges and
higher institutions of learning were founded across the American landscape:
Bryn Mawr, Brigham Young, Clemson, Cornell, Drexel, Florida State, Gallaudet,
Kansas State, La Salle, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Mississippi
State, Ohio State, Purdue, Rutgers, Seton Hall, Texas A&M, Ursinus,
Vassar, and Wheaton to name only a few. Theological seminaries were also
being established during this century: Princeton was founded by the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in 1812, Union Theological Seminary of
New York City in 1836, the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary of the
Southern Baptist Convention was founded in 1859, and the Lutheran
Theological Seminary at Philadelphia was founded in 1864.
Juniata College is the oldest of the
six colleges that are affiliated with the Church of the Brethren. It was the
vision of three central Pennsylvania men of the Brumbaugh family who
steadfastly advocated the establishment of a Brethren institution of higher
education. Martin Brumbaugh was later elected governor of Pennsylvania
(1915-19). The college officially opened for classes on April 17, 1876 as
the Huntingdon Normal School. Its label was changed to Brethren's Normal
College two years later, and then finally to Juniata College in 1894 (from
the nearby Juniata River). The school received full accreditation from the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1896, and is a co-educational institution
with an enrollment near 1,300.
Bridgewater College evolved from the
former Spring Creek Normal School, which was founded in 1880 under the
leadership of Daniel Flory. The school was originally located at Spring Creek,
Virginia, but moved a few miles east to Bridgewater in 1882, just in time for
the fall semester. It was incorporated by the State of Virginia in 1884 and
the label changed to Bridgewater College in 1889 after revising it's charter.
Full accreditation as a four-year college by the Virginia State Board of
Education came in 1916. A renovation began in the early 1960s that resulted in
a larger enrollment, more buildings, off-campus internships, and a stronger
athletic program. It is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near
1,000.
McPherson College was founded in
August of 1887, and opened for classes the following year on September 5,
1888. It was the first of the Brethren affiliated colleges to include a
biblical studies program as apart of its origination, and the first to request
a direct relationship with the Church of the Brethren. McPherson has a strong
agricultural department that was strengthened by the acquisition of a one
hundred fifty acre farm in 1909. Accreditation was then received in 1921 from
the North Central Association of Colleges. Presently, a board of trustees
includes some Brethren from surrounding church districts. Since it is the only
Brethren affiliated institution in the mid-west, McPherson serves a wider
geographic region than the other five colleges, with a prospective area of
coverage from the Pacific coast to the Mississippi River, and from Canada to
Mexico. It is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near 500.
Manchester College was incorporated
from the former Roanoke Classical Seminary, founded in 1860 by members of the
United Brethren Church in Roanoke, Indiana. It was moved to North Manchester,
Indiana, in 1889 and acquired by the Church of the Brethren in 1902. It was
first incorporated as the College and Bible School in 1895. Presently it is
governed by a board of trustees, some of whose members are elected by various
Church of the Brethren districts. Accreditation was received from the State of
Indiana in 1932. Manchester was the first Brethren affiliated college to offer
a Peace Studies program in 1948. It is a co-educational institution with an
enrollment near 1,100.
La Verne, University of was founded by
members of the Church of the Brethren under the name of Lordsburg College in
1891. The Church of the Brethren Pacific Southwest District took over the
administration of the school in 1908, and the name of the school was changed
to La Verne College in 1917. Accreditation was received by the California
Board of Education in 1927 and administrative control was later transferred to
an independent board of trustees in 1933. Following accreditation by the
Western College Association in 1955, the school engaged in a vigorous program
of innovation during the 1960s with new major program's of study being
introduced, such as the introduction of off-campus degree programs in 1969,
addition of a law school in 1970, and the American Armenian International
College in 1976, plus a name change in 1977 to the University of La Verne. It
is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near 1,400.
Elizabethtown
College officially opened for classes on November 13, 1900, at the corner
of South Market and Bainbridge streets in Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania. Elders
of the German Baptist Brethren of Pennsylvania Eastern district were invited
in 1898 to attend a meeting for the expressed purpose of founding an
institution of higher education, and a committee subsequently recommended
Elizabethtown as their choice location. The school was moved to the east side
of town in January of the following year, and came under ownership of the
Eastern Pennsylvania district of the Church of the Brethren in 1917. For the
first twenty years it also operated an academy for high-school students, and
received accreditation for issuing baccalaureate degrees from the State
Council on Education in 1921. Several building and renovation initiatives
during the 1950-1960s greatly increased the size of the campus. This
strengthened its academic program, which offers study in almost forty major
pursuits. It is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near 1,500
(largest of the six colleges).
Schisms of the 1880's
ultural modifications
and innovations of this century had a cumulative effect. As more factors began
changing the Brethren subculture, one of three things would usually happen; it
would be resisted by those who did not want their heritage altered (the
Primitives or Old Orders), it would be celebrated by those who delighted in
progress (the Progressives), or it would be grudgingly accepted in silence by
the majority (called the Conservatives). Exposure to new ideas and cultural
relationships succeeded in making the more primitive Brethren intransigent
toward change, whereas the explosion of industrial innovations and variously
related opportunities delighted the more liberal Brethren. The neutral
high-ground of the vast number of moderates did not provide sufficient calm to
inhibit the later secession of both these more extreme groups.
All of the cultural factors enumerated in the preceding sections of this document produced two very separate minority factions during the Nineteenth century. Industrialism, participation in war, and a professional ministry irreversibly changed the inner soul of many Brethren, with the contributing element of Brethren publications quickly transporting these opinions and observations throughout the denomination. Socially forced exposure to new concepts removed the Brethren's ability to remain sheltered in a protected subculture. Progressives gladly accepted the innovations of this century, and tried to influence their fellow Brethren to do likewise, but the primitives or Old Orders (also called Ancient Brethren) regarded this as a worldly invitation to dismiss proven cherished values, feeling threatened with the loss of control over their heritage. Predictably, each group viewed the other with mild suspicion which only increased the probability of a cultural collision. For many years prior to the schisms, Annual Meeting was the arena of dissidence where Progressives, Primitives, and Conservatives frequently and tearfully collided over parliamentary questions regarding social conventions, methods of worship, and denominational policy.
Something else was gradually changing during this century; a population shift was occurring in which a substantial increase of people resided in more urban areas. In the 1790 U.S. census, only three percent of the population lived in the six largest cities, but in only one-half century, that increased to sixteen percent. More of the Brethren were being urbanized, and agrarianism reflected the life style of fewer people. Gradually a new, more sophisticated face began to appear on the denominational countenance along with a revised system of values. Life in the country, even among non-farming people, is more intricately woven into the process of agriculture, with planting and harvesting accomplished through dependence on favorable weather. Because of this trust on nature, God becomes more central to thought, activities, and planning. Life on the urban scene is a mélange of human construction in glass, asphalt, steel, and concrete. Urbanites depend to a greater extent on ingenuity and social economy than divine providence. Country folk enjoy simple living while towns people run the gauntlet of complexity. If the expanse of open country invites communication and hospitality, the close quarters of town life overwhelms people with fear and distrust. Both natures are subtlety exhibited in beliefs, conduct, dress, expectations, and utilization of materials.
Modernists snicker at the questions of propriety that arose during this century: "Should one allow carpeting? Should one install lightning rods? Should one allow photographs?" But these arguments uniquely reflected the social climate of that day, and the modernist is reminded that similar questions of culture exist today over abortion, civil rights, economic disparity, genetic engineering, and sexuality. Only the labels have changed, for people residing in culturally different localities will predictably disagree over social conventions, ethics, and theology because they perceive their environment and their God much differently.
Culturally different voices gave expression at Annual Meeting representing fundamentally different perceptions of the Brethren experience. The Old Orders or Primitives viewed members, although in separate congregations, as single units of the greater body of the church. Elders supervised individual congregations and stood in harmony with each other at the Annual Meeting; thus, the yearly gathering was esteemed as the ultimate seat of denominational authority. Furthermore, it was held every year on Pentecost, so as to parallel their decision making with the original infilling of the Holy Spirit. This almost mystical association was to hopefully invite the Spirit to, likewise, fill the attendants of Annual Meeting with spiritual wisdom to make the proper decisions. Additionally, these decisions were arrived through consensus or unanimity of opinion, so as to maintain harmony throughout the body. Conversely, Progressives viewed members as units of autonomous congregations which did not necessarily require a yearly conference; thus, each congregation should be its own seat of authority. Furthermore, the innovation of democratic rule (by majority) at Annual Meeting was heralded as progress, because it hastened parliamentary action, instead of the protracted discussions necessary to arrive at consensus. Unfortunately, this always produces a minority opinion which lacks the unanimity and harmony of consensus enjoyed by the Primitives or Old Orders. During the 1870's, a small Progressive group began leading the church to implement innovations that were considered by the vast majority of moderates as too worldly. At the same time, a small group of Old Orders desired implementation of measures to preserve historic values that were similarly perceived by the moderates as too restrictive. The insistence of each group to have their own way fractured the German Baptist Brethren, with the Older Orders breaking away from Annual Meeting in 1881 to form the Old German Baptist Brethren; and two years after Progressive leader H.R. Holsinger was repudiated or disowned by the Annual Meeting of 1882, this more liberal arm seceded to form The Brethren Church. These divisions actually freed the central group of moderates (called Conservatives) from the insistence of both parties, to finally regain the momentum of their own denominational vision. But it would take years for that vision to crystallize, because the constant infighting at Annual Meeting had left them without a clear identity.
Although dismayed by the series of events for many years, the moderates gradually devised a course for the future. In the 1904-1906 Annual Meetings they felt the need for a new identity with a new denominational name, for at least three reasons: (1) Brethren had been predominately speaking English since about 1850, (2) the label German gradually seemed less and less descriptive of their evolving culture, and (3) a new label would hopefully disassociate them from the unpleasant divisiveness of the recent past. Originally known as the Schwarzenau Baptists, they assumed the name of German Baptist Brethren in their New World migrations, since few people in America would have any idea where Schwarzenau is located. Much aware that they were no longer strictly German and now also eschewing the title Baptist, the remaining word Brethren was the only thing left that would still retain their heritage. In 1908, Annual Conference (previously called Annual Meeting) would formally adopt the denominational label, Church of the Brethren. They were...
...starting a new century with a new name.
Photo Credits:
- Spring House photo submitted by Richard Judy from The History of the Church of the Brethren: Northeastern Ohio, 1914, and drawn from memory by Irene Kurtz Summers, granddaughter of Elder Henry Kurtz, and retouched by Mrs. F.E. Moherman.
- Photo of Elder Christian Winey, a dearly beloved gentle spirit, who exhibited strong and caring leadership in the Lost Creek COB (now Bunkertown, PA Southern)
- Graphic collection of early Brethren publications from Brethren Historical Library & Archives.
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Brethren
Bibliography A resource of Brethren, Anabaptist, and Pietist literature |
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"And when James, Cephas, and John,
who seemed to be pillars,
perceived the grace that was given unto me,
they gave to me and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship;
that we should go unto (one group)
and they unto (another group)."
Galatians 2:9
Acculturation of the Brethren in the
Nineteenth Century
Written by Ronald J.
Gordon ~ Published February, 1996 ~ Last Updated, November, 2000 ©
This document may be reproduced for non-profit or educational
purposes only, with the
provisions that the entire document remain intact and full acknowledgement be
given to the author.
any
innovations of the Nineteenth Century irreversibly changed the Brethren who were
mostly rurally situated, agriculturally minded, and moderately suspicious of
outside influences. In the 1700's and early 1800's the Brethren easily managed
to insulate themselves from the influences of American society due to their
German sub-culture and rural location. What proved to complicate matters was the
fact that while the more primitive rural Brethren generally abstained or
refrained from technological innovations and more worldly social conventions,
many of their urban counterparts were embracing both. Annual
Conference (then called Annual Meeting), the denominational forum
regularly became a factious arena where cultural and theological lines were
clearly drawn between the more primitive Brethren (also called Old Orders,
Ancient Brethren) and their progressive counterparts (also called The
Progressives). This century dramatically restructured the social and
theological framework of the German Baptist Brethren, and here are some of the
contributing factors.
Different
Winds
ind possesses an
elusive and mysterious quality: You can feel it but you can't see it. The
direction of the slightest breeze can be determined by moistening a finger and
turning it in the wind, because coolness from evaporation indicates the
direction. This particular has often been metaphorically applied to moods and
dispositions, e.i., political winds, winds of change, or winds of war. Elected
officials often moisten their political fingers in order to determine the will
of their constituents. People in different geographical environments or social
class structures think differently. What is important to one group may not be
given consideration by another group. A population might be culturally diverse
in the same geographical locale. In colonial America, most of the population was
concentrated along the Atlantic coastline, and their reasoning, logic, politics,
and theology was generally uniform. As they migrated into new territories,
belief systems gradually changed, due to new hardships and unexpected
challenges. One of the most significant catalysts to encourage the movement of
population in the history of American migration was the Louisiana Purchase
of 1803. This
action nearly doubled the size of the United States and energized an interest in
moving west. In May of 1804, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark set out to
explore and map the new territory, and by 1850 a steady march of adventurers had
created 2,170 miles of wagon ruts labeled the Oregon Trail. Railroads were also
being constructed across the plains with a transcontinental hookup finally
occurring in 1869 at Promontory Summit near Ogden, Utah. The nation was slowly
moving west.
Included in this westward ambulation was a small Brethren Migration, first traveling on the Ohio River from Pittsburgh into Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Eventually the lure of cheap land and freedom encouraged them to move all the way to the Pacific coast where they established several congregations. So heavily did the Brethren populate the mid-west and far-west that in 1822, Annual Meeting was first held to the west of the traditional thin Atlantic coastline. In the next fifty years, cultural adjustments for the Brethren were profoundly challenging as they felt the social effects of different winds. Brethren in the east were close knit whereas their western counterparts were scattered. Harmony between churches was comfortably maintained in the east, but western Brethren were separated from each other by hundreds of miles. In some cases, they were too few in number to even build a church. Western congregations generally lacked economic resources while eastern Brethren enjoyed financial stability. Easterners in general were able to communicate news quickly, but sparsely populated westerners received news intermittently. Fellowship, affirmation, consensus, and bonding was lacking in the west. Conversely, eastern Brethren relished these particulars. Although basic doctrines and practices remained somewhat unaffected during the initial migrations, the Brethren were incrementally digressing into two entirely different worlds, and denominational conversation soon gave evidence of these different winds. Eastern Brethren were strongly aligned through tradition, supervised by the Eldership and predictably looked to Annual Meeting as a place to settle matters of discord. Western Brethren were more loosely aligned through a common mystic of survival in a harsh and unforgiving territory, and did not esteem Annual Meeting with the same degree of passion as their eastern counterparts.
Concerned voices appealed to Annual Meeting for a remedy to the situation. One such appeal for unity was for the creation of denominational literature that would serve as a central platform for the dissemination of news and the discussion of ideas. Although separated by great distances, Brethren literature could bridge the geographical and social gap with articles, news, and human interest stories. However, these publications only shifted the location of the dialog. Additionally, new winds began to move an aggregate body into distinct groups: liberal and conservative, traditional and progressive, innovative and plain.
 Early Brethren Publications, BHLA |
enry Kurtz was born in
Germany in 1796 with aspirations for the ministry. After emigrating to America,
he entered the Luther Synod and received his first pastorate in Pennsylvania.
While studying the Bible he became convinced that faith was an essential part of
baptism. A novel opinion for a Lutheran, and this position soon led to his
excommunication. He moved to Ohio where he later met and joined the Brethren.
Gradually he became deeply involved in roles of leadership. In a few years,
Kurtz served as pastor, ordained elder, and writing clerk of Annual Meeting; a
position which he held for almost twenty years. One reason being that he could
intimately converse in both German and English, and the Brethren were in the
midst of changing from exclusive use of German to English. The concern for
denominational literature found its champion in Kurtz who had briefly attempted
to publish a church paper while a Lutheran minister. A question presented to
Annual Meeting in 1850 concerning denominational literature reawakened his
enthusiasm for publishing, and he began to set in motion the publication of the
first Brethren periodical.
 Publishing began in a spring house |
The Gospel Visitor was first issued in 1851 from a hand-press located on the second floor of a spring house on a small farm in Ohio. It's appearance was professional and noteworthy considering the humbleness of its origin. Although not recognized as an official voice of the denomination because of it's personal emanation, delegates to the Annual Meeting of the same year decided that it's worthiness should be judged by all Brethren congregations until next year. James Quinter became assistant editor in 1856 with Henry Holsinger soon joining the team. Holsinger wanted to produce a weekly paper, and started the Christian Family Companion. It contained free expression of ideas from individual members which could then be read by the larger community, a new concept for the Brethren and a primal form of an Internet list server.
| Primitive
Christian Front |
Rear |
The two were eventually merged, and finally given the name The Primitive Christian. Quinter became the chief editor and Kurtz devoted his time to working on a Brethren Encyclopedia which first appeared in 1867. The Primitive Christian later absorbed the Pilgrim in 1876, another weekly paper issued by H.B. & J.B. Brumbaugh from James Creek, Pennsylvania. In the same year, J.T. Myers and L.A. Plate started the Brethren's Messenger from Germantown, Pennsylvania and then moved it to Lanark, Illinois with a new title, Brethren at Work. In 1883, these two papers were merged to form the Gospel Messenger. The word Gospel was later dropped and it's frequency of publication changed from weekly to monthly. James Quinter and H.B. Brumbaugh worked as co-editors. Messenger is still published by the General Offices at Elgin, Illinois.
As the free exchange of ideas manifested itself in Brethren books and periodicals, this exposure forced the Brethren to acknowledge the influence and values of the larger world and contributed to the widening gulf between progressives and conservatives. Before the appearance of Brethren literature, there was no published denominational voice except the minutes of decisions from Annual Conference. Until the emergence of these publications, the eldership had a firm grip on any denominational voice because they controlled the proceedings of Annual Conference. Now, the general membership would also have the opportunity to voice their personal opinions about church life or society through these periodicals. Compounding the issue for the Elders was the fact that each publication was not officially recognized by the denomination. These papers were the inspiration of lay persons, entrepreneurial undertakings without any outside controls on content or expression. Each editor was relatively free to make his publication become what he envisioned it should be, although there would naturally have been an environment of discretion on the part of the editor, if he wanted his paper to gain wide acceptance within the denomination. In a modern world of instant communication one might question why publications would have had a deleterious effect on some Brethren. It can be understood only if we strive to appreciate the mind set of the time. Communication was not the issue but its invasion of a sub-culture that viewed outside influences with suspicion. For example, if the controlling party of Annual Conference made specific decisions on matters of faith and practice, members now had an opportunity to voice their opinions about these decisions. The widespread reading of their opinions in these new publications also had a lobbying effect. Many other ingredients contributed to the attrition of the Brethren sub-culture, particularly matters of nonconformity. Usually this topic focused on clothing and apparel but it was a much larger issue that involved a direct challenges to historic Brethren understandings, such as decisions about nonparticipation in war, plus a whole new issue and subsequent call for professionalism in the ministry.
rethren were a
sequestered people from the time of their beginnings in Schwarzenau under a
hostile church-state environment. Forced into isolation because of their
convictions and unwaveringly pursued by authorities, the Brethren naturally
resisted conformity to the outside world.
 |
| Elder in typical Plain Dress |
Although colonial liberty spared them from governmental harassment, their language and culture impeded their infusion. The name Germantown (town of Germans) represents their hesitancy to assimilate with others of foreign descent. Mostly living on farms or in rural areas helped to preserve their nonconformity. For dress-up events men typically wore plain dark clothing with few buttons, plus the obligatory large broad-brimmed hat. No tie! Folded up labels then created an open square just below the chin. Beards with or without mustache, but never mustache alone, because it reminded the Brethren of the mounted European cavalry officers who usually wore large mustaches. Women s dresses were usually plain (depending on the household) with few buttons and little or no trimmings such as ribbons. Many dresses had a triangular cape or bib that covered the upper-waist beginning at the outer crown of each shoulder and converging to a point near the center of the waist. Bonnets or coverings were strictly enforced for any women/girl who was a member. Although styles varied from home to home and congregation to congregation, the guiding principles of garment construction were simplicity, plainness, and modesty. Beside the functionality of covering the body, clothing also serves to convey inner motives and subtleties. Colors, trimmings, and ornaments enhance these predispositions. Bright red transmits a different message to others than dark blue. An over abundance of jewelry projects something far different than plainness. In the early part of the century, most garments were made at home where style and appearance was under family control. Towards the middle to latter part of the century, factory produced garments were more readily available and cheaper. The values of the outside world could now be displayed on the wearer and likewise influence the observer. As more Brethren started to wear factory made clothing, the gulf widened between those who accepted or resisted acculturation.
Industrialization
James
Watt. Few other single inventions have so vastly contributed to world
progress than the efficient utilization of steam power. With the discovery of
the principle of electromagnetic induction, generators powered by steam began
making electricity available on a limited scale. Industrialization spread to
America between 1800 and 1850 which led to spectacular growth in population,
land acquisition, and wealth. Following are the more significant inventions of
the first half of the Nineteenth Century; steam locomotive (1804), photography
(ca. 1826), grain reaper (1831), gas refrigeration (1834), telegraph (1836),
pneumatic tire (1845), sewing machine (1846); and immediately followed by the
internal-combustion engine, dynamite, typewriter, telephone, incandescent
light, and the automobile. Steam power running heavy machinery incorporated
with electricity enabled factories to cheaply mass produce what had previously
been done laboriously by hand. The proliferation of new things was a constant
temptation, especially for a sub-culture like the Brethren who desired
simplicity and plainness.
he Industrial
Revolution began in Great Britain soon after the invention of the steam
engine, and especially it's lucrative improvement in 1760 by
The use of some "new things or ways" precipitated heated debate at Annual Conference that was not always resolved the same year. The installation of lightning rods was one of the first to initiate controversy in the Brethren camp, since many regarded them a lack of faith in God's providential care. This question was presented to Annual Conference over a period of several years with the final decision "advising" the Brethren to neither install or remove them, but place their trust in God; however, it also pleaded with members to accept each others individual choice. This was a surprising display of tolerance at a time when Brethren were often viewed as dogmatic authoritarians. Other issues would also make the journey to Annual Conference such as carpeting on floors, photographs, life insurance, and incurring debt with interest. The rural and more conservative mind often viewed these innovations with immediate suspicion. Perhaps, because the very ownership of gadgets and seemingly useless devices was foreign to a culture whose European period was typified by constant migration to avoid persecution. When death becomes an imminent reality, possessions often have little meaning. In the new world, many Brethren were involved with farming, a simplistic life style that had existed for thousands of years without numerous devices and gadgetry. Additionally, the possession of certain machinery invites control from the factory which produces it. In other words, the aversion to a device may not be a device itself, but the fear of one's life being later controlled by outside forces.
Participation in War
s one of the three
historic peace advocate churches, the Church of the Brethren resists any
involvement in war, the bearing of weapons, or the rendering of assistance
to entities involved in the killing of human beings. However, this century
introduced a war that challenged the Brethren position. The Civil War
impacted this country, perhaps more so than any other single event because
of the debilitating effects of internal conflict when brother fights against
brother. Additionally, the ugliness of slavery demanded recognition, the
immense economic aftermath changed the very structure of the federal
government, and the death of President Lincoln created a national wound. The
great majority of Brethren did not enlist, and many who did, refused to
kill. Nonparticipant s paid heavy files or went to prison while others fled
and resettled elsewhere. The general mood of the nation, resting on the
momentum of the Revolutionary War did not yet recognize pacifism. Still
fixed in the national conscience was the Minute Man who left field &
farm to serve his country, and figures such as Patrick Henry who was
immortalized for his declaration of "give me liberty, or give me
death." The inconsistency of Brethren involvement in the Civil War
began a process of debate within the denomination that had not previously
existed. Pacifism had its roots in Anabaptist thought and was for the
Brethren a given understanding. Why then did some Brethren leave their
pacifist heritage for the battlefield? Was the Civil War unique among
hostilities? Why the sudden tolerance of military participation? In his
book, "Studies in Brethren History," page 268, Floyd Mallott
shares an interesting observation.
"There is a direct relationship between participation in government and participation in military service. In monarchical Europe the question of participation in government-and the attempt at directing society-did not occur. Only in the New World with its theory of democratic participation could the question be raised."
If Mallott's observation is valid, then Brethren involvement in national government could be antithetical to it's pacifistic heritage. Yet if abstention from politics is desirable, how then may Brethren participate in the "directing of society?" The next century would experience two world conflicts with a higher percentage of Brethren involved in each. The modern Church of the Brethren maintains its official appellation of a
Professional Ministry
ree ministry was
observed in Brethren congregations so as to keep the allegiance of the
speaker in harmony with the Holy Spirit and not diminished by financial
conflicts with the congregation. Ministers did not receive a salary, wage,
or stipend for their spiritual contributions. For this reason it was not
uncommon for a church to have several ministers who earned a living from a
separate occupation. There were few, if any, salaried Brethren ministers
during the first half of the Nineteenth Century. Some were farmers while
others were skilled craftsmen and various methods were used in their
selection. The candidate would then meet in a closed room for an interview
with the Elders, because only the latter understood the actual sentiment and
plurality of congregations (see expanded below). Installation began a
process that would eventually advance them through
Depending on the location and size of the congregation, ministers were generally selected or elected along the following scheme. As the congregation sensed the need for an additional minister, each member would privately spend time considering which of the young men of the congregation would be most suited for the office. Elders from nearby congregations would convene a special day of examination to question members on their choice. One by one each member would go into a private room with the elders and respond to questions regarding their preference. There were no ballots or nominations, for this was selection by plurality. After reviewing the entire membership, the elders would emerge to inform the congregation of their decision. This practice was later challenged because it may allow a minority of voices to select a minister. During the last half of the century, new voices called for open elections with ballots and nominations so that any selection would be consequential to a majority of the congregation. Traditional voices did not like the democratic scheme because it appeared to exclude the guidance of the Holy Spirit in concert with the eldership. Voices of change were further reminded that when elders pronounced the winning candidate, they would then ask the congregation for unanimous consent which did require a majority opinion.
As times changed, so did the role of the pastor. Ministers generally did not receive advanced education, but relied on their own study of the Bible, as well as personal experiences in the vast arena of life. Rural oriented Brethren from a slower pace began moving to cities, and experienced the faster pace of city life which required the pastor to assume a more 'executive type' role within the church. Instead of congregations personally involved in witnessing, programs were instituted by churches to transfer money to other agencies with specialized resources for witnessing. As the identity of the church changed, so did the role of its pastor. Instead of the more traditional role of preacher, the minister began to assume the role of program director. This new role required the pastor to be more of an executive than a layman who would 'stall the horses and put on the preach'n hat.' Toward the end of the century, the Brethren founded Colleges which produced a more educated candidate for ministry and missionary work. As increasing numbers of ministers graduated from these schools, many congregations openly expressed a desire for an educated pastor instead of the crude rural preacher, the Dumb Dunkard was the common terminology. The traditional Brethren contended for an Eldership controlled selection process, arguing that elders in harmony with the Holy Spirit was the most reliable process. Younger men desired the 'nomination & ballot' method, so as to remove control from Elders in closed rooms. Ministers with education and occupational preparation became the requisite of many congregations, and with an increase in ministers assuming professional status, congregations gradually modified their individual responsibility to the community because they began transferring money to other agencies that would perform these duties. Additionally, single role ministers serving as pastors needed more training to facilitate their congregations. Education was becoming a necessary part of ministerial preparation and a formal school to educate the pastor for the modern congregation became inevitable. In 1905, Albert C. Wieand and Emanuel B. Hoff founded Bethany Bible School in a private home in Chicago after learning that Brethren ministerial candidates were planning to enroll in the nearby Moody Bible School. In spite of continuing opposition to higher education, the Van Buren street campus of Bethany Biblical Seminary was garnered by the Church of the Brethren in 1925. After more than forty years of service, a new facility was constructed west of the Chicago area near the community of Oak Brook, and the name was later changed to Bethany Theological Seminary. The school moved once again to Richmond, Indiana in 1994 to share the campus of the Earlham School of Religion. As the Nineteenth Century was drawing to a close, professional education and Brethren ministerial preparation were becoming synonymous.
homas Jefferson was
elected President of the United States of America in 1800, a very intellectually
gifted man with an extraordinary vision for the new republic. Jefferson had
earlier penned the Declaration of Independence during the colonial period and
guided many voices crying for freedom. Now as President, Jefferson would guide
this same nation into a new century, an interval that would prove to be a time
of immense social and technological change. In 1779, Jefferson issued A Bill
for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge, a proposal to the Virginia Assembly
suggesting that the state pay for the education of boys and girls for a minimum
of three years. Although it failed to acquire enough votes, this paper gives us
a clear idea of his perspective on education. Jefferson believed that an
educated populace was the best guarantee of liberty. By studying history, people
would understand how governments become corrupt and tyranny begins. During the
election of 1800, while his own party was in turmoil and conflict, Jefferson
wrote in a private letter: "I have sworn upon the altar of God, eternal
hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." He
perceived that a good education and intellectual awareness were the major
guardians of a free society. Although older universities such as Harvard, Yale,
and Dartmouth had been in operation for decades, nineteen new colleges received
their charters from 1782 until 1802, and each institution is still in operation.
In 1819, ex-president Thomas Jefferson became instrumental in the chartering of
the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, three miles west of his estate at
Monticello, with additional devotion to planning the grounds, buildings, and
curriculum. Basic education in colonial America was generally composed of
reading, writing, arithmetic, and learning poems. Textbooks and paper was often
scarce, so boys and girls frequently shared resources and memorized as much as
possible. Basic materials usually consisted of a Primer, the Bible, and a
Hornbook. Colonial education was usually for white students only. Non-white
children were not privileged to attend school except in the rarest circumstance.
In a society before radio, television, and computer games, most youth spent
their evenings reading, much of the time from the Bible.
The move towards higher education in America was a protracted experience, that steadily gained momentum in the first half of the Nineteenth Century. The first parochial school was founded in 1809 near Baltimore by Elizabeth Ann Seton. Boston’s English High School opens in 1821 with 102 students and in 1827, Massachusetts required every town of 500 families to support a high school. Emma Willard School was founded at the Troy Female Seminary near Troy, New York in 1821, by educator Emma Hart Willard, 34, to prove that women can master subjects such as mathematics and philosophy. In the next ten years, many towns in New England mandated elementary education.
A continued emphasis on spiritual and community
attributes instead of more worldly education gave the Brethren a primitive
stereotype which often elicited the phrase - Dumb Dunkard. It was an
undeserved phrase which troubled some Brethren and propelled them to the
point of creating schools that would educate their youth into a more refined
citizenry. They wanted to erase that plebeian caricature once and for all,
while others felt comfortable in the pursuit of spiritual education without
regard to worldly appellations. Progressives wanted their youth to excel in
academia, while others noted that ignorant Galilean fishermen turned the
world upside down without a formal education, that God seeks the lowly to
confound the wise: But God hath chosen the foolish
things of the world to confound the wise; and God hath chosen the weak
things of the world to confound the things which are mighty; And base things
of the world, and things which are despised, hath God chosen, yea, and
things which are not, to bring to nought things that are: That no flesh
should glory in his presence" 1 Corinthians 1:27-29.
Tensions arose which created strong feelings about the course of the
denomination. Factions evolved that later contributed to the Schisms of
1881-1882. Momentum for the establishment of Brethren colleges and
universities was not a denominationally coordinated effort, but rather an
interspersed energy rising from the vision of unrelated individuals at
different times in various geographical locations, starting with Juniata
College in 1876 and ending with Elizabethtown College in 1899. Annual
Meeting uniformily declined to assume any degree of ownership in the
colleges and further stipulated that the word Brethren should not be
included in the school label.
Brethren Affiliated Colleges
igher education was
not a significant issue for the German Baptist Brethren until the latter
half of the century. Determined to preserve their rural German sub-culture,
the Brethren modestly resisted the concept of higher education at the family
level for two principal reasons: they were a hard working people immediately
concerned with making a living and viewed formal education as a luxury,
additionally there was a significant fear that outside social influences,
especially of campus life, would alter the spiritually established
principles of their young men and women. Minutes from Annual Meeting fail to
exhibit a formal denominational prohibition to public education, but
acceptance of college education was resisted from the first petition in 1831
until the middle of the century when a complete reversal occured in 1858.
This was predictable because so many Brethren were either attending or
teaching in colleges and universities. Leading the movement to higher
education were the more progressive Brethren who believed that their youth,
and the denomination as a whole, may quickly fall behind other religious
bodies who openly supported the idea of colleges and seminaries. During the
last half of the Nineteenth Century, literally hundreds of colleges and
higher institutions of learning were founded across the American landscape:
Bryn Mawr, Brigham Young, Clemson, Cornell, Drexel, Florida State, Gallaudet,
Kansas State, La Salle, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Mississippi
State, Ohio State, Purdue, Rutgers, Seton Hall, Texas A&M, Ursinus,
Vassar, and Wheaton to name only a few. Theological seminaries were also
being established during this century: Princeton was founded by the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in 1812, Union Theological Seminary of
New York City in 1836, the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary of the
Southern Baptist Convention was founded in 1859, and the Lutheran
Theological Seminary at Philadelphia was founded in 1864.
Juniata College is the oldest of the
six colleges that are affiliated with the Church of the Brethren. It was the
vision of three central Pennsylvania men of the Brumbaugh family who
steadfastly advocated the establishment of a Brethren institution of higher
education. Martin Brumbaugh was later elected governor of Pennsylvania
(1915-19). The college officially opened for classes on April 17, 1876 as
the Huntingdon Normal School. Its label was changed to Brethren's Normal
College two years later, and then finally to Juniata College in 1894 (from
the nearby Juniata River). The school received full accreditation from the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1896, and is a co-educational institution
with an enrollment near 1,300.
Bridgewater College evolved from the
former Spring Creek Normal School, which was founded in 1880 under the
leadership of Daniel Flory. The school was originally located at Spring Creek,
Virginia, but moved a few miles east to Bridgewater in 1882, just in time for
the fall semester. It was incorporated by the State of Virginia in 1884 and
the label changed to Bridgewater College in 1889 after revising it's charter.
Full accreditation as a four-year college by the Virginia State Board of
Education came in 1916. A renovation began in the early 1960s that resulted in
a larger enrollment, more buildings, off-campus internships, and a stronger
athletic program. It is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near
1,000.
McPherson College was founded in
August of 1887, and opened for classes the following year on September 5,
1888. It was the first of the Brethren affiliated colleges to include a
biblical studies program as apart of its origination, and the first to request
a direct relationship with the Church of the Brethren. McPherson has a strong
agricultural department that was strengthened by the acquisition of a one
hundred fifty acre farm in 1909. Accreditation was then received in 1921 from
the North Central Association of Colleges. Presently, a board of trustees
includes some Brethren from surrounding church districts. Since it is the only
Brethren affiliated institution in the mid-west, McPherson serves a wider
geographic region than the other five colleges, with a prospective area of
coverage from the Pacific coast to the Mississippi River, and from Canada to
Mexico. It is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near 500.
Manchester College was incorporated
from the former Roanoke Classical Seminary, founded in 1860 by members of the
United Brethren Church in Roanoke, Indiana. It was moved to North Manchester,
Indiana, in 1889 and acquired by the Church of the Brethren in 1902. It was
first incorporated as the College and Bible School in 1895. Presently it is
governed by a board of trustees, some of whose members are elected by various
Church of the Brethren districts. Accreditation was received from the State of
Indiana in 1932. Manchester was the first Brethren affiliated college to offer
a Peace Studies program in 1948. It is a co-educational institution with an
enrollment near 1,100.
La Verne, University of was founded by
members of the Church of the Brethren under the name of Lordsburg College in
1891. The Church of the Brethren Pacific Southwest District took over the
administration of the school in 1908, and the name of the school was changed
to La Verne College in 1917. Accreditation was received by the California
Board of Education in 1927 and administrative control was later transferred to
an independent board of trustees in 1933. Following accreditation by the
Western College Association in 1955, the school engaged in a vigorous program
of innovation during the 1960s with new major program's of study being
introduced, such as the introduction of off-campus degree programs in 1969,
addition of a law school in 1970, and the American Armenian International
College in 1976, plus a name change in 1977 to the University of La Verne. It
is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near 1,400.
Elizabethtown
College officially opened for classes on November 13, 1900, at the corner
of South Market and Bainbridge streets in Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania. Elders
of the German Baptist Brethren of Pennsylvania Eastern district were invited
in 1898 to attend a meeting for the expressed purpose of founding an
institution of higher education, and a committee subsequently recommended
Elizabethtown as their choice location. The school was moved to the east side
of town in January of the following year, and came under ownership of the
Eastern Pennsylvania district of the Church of the Brethren in 1917. For the
first twenty years it also operated an academy for high-school students, and
received accreditation for issuing baccalaureate degrees from the State
Council on Education in 1921. Several building and renovation initiatives
during the 1950-1960s greatly increased the size of the campus. This
strengthened its academic program, which offers study in almost forty major
pursuits. It is a co-educational institution with an enrollment near 1,500
(largest of the six colleges).
Schisms of the 1880's
ultural modifications
and innovations of this century had a cumulative effect. As more factors began
changing the Brethren subculture, one of three things would usually happen; it
would be resisted by those who did not want their heritage altered (the
Primitives or Old Orders), it would be celebrated by those who delighted in
progress (the Progressives), or it would be grudgingly accepted in silence by
the majority (called the Conservatives). Exposure to new ideas and cultural
relationships succeeded in making the more primitive Brethren intransigent
toward change, whereas the explosion of industrial innovations and variously
related opportunities delighted the more liberal Brethren. The neutral
high-ground of the vast number of moderates did not provide sufficient calm to
inhibit the later secession of both these more extreme groups.
All of the cultural factors enumerated in the preceding sections of this document produced two very separate minority factions during the Nineteenth century. Industrialism, participation in war, and a professional ministry irreversibly changed the inner soul of many Brethren, with the contributing element of Brethren publications quickly transporting these opinions and observations throughout the denomination. Socially forced exposure to new concepts removed the Brethren's ability to remain sheltered in a protected subculture. Progressives gladly accepted the innovations of this century, and tried to influence their fellow Brethren to do likewise, but the primitives or Old Orders (also called Ancient Brethren) regarded this as a worldly invitation to dismiss proven cherished values, feeling threatened with the loss of control over their heritage. Predictably, each group viewed the other with mild suspicion which only increased the probability of a cultural collision. For many years prior to the schisms, Annual Meeting was the arena of dissidence where Progressives, Primitives, and Conservatives frequently and tearfully collided over parliamentary questions regarding social conventions, methods of worship, and denominational policy.
Something else was gradually changing during this century; a population shift was occurring in which a substantial increase of people resided in more urban areas. In the 1790 U.S. census, only three percent of the population lived in the six largest cities, but in only one-half century, that increased to sixteen percent. More of the Brethren were being urbanized, and agrarianism reflected the life style of fewer people. Gradually a new, more sophisticated face began to appear on the denominational countenance along with a revised system of values. Life in the country, even among non-farming people, is more intricately woven into the process of agriculture, with planting and harvesting accomplished through dependence on favorable weather. Because of this trust on nature, God becomes more central to thought, activities, and planning. Life on the urban scene is a mélange of human construction in glass, asphalt, steel, and concrete. Urbanites depend to a greater extent on ingenuity and social economy than divine providence. Country folk enjoy simple living while towns people run the gauntlet of complexity. If the expanse of open country invites communication and hospitality, the close quarters of town life overwhelms people with fear and distrust. Both natures are subtlety exhibited in beliefs, conduct, dress, expectations, and utilization of materials.
Modernists snicker at the questions of propriety that arose during this century: "Should one allow carpeting? Should one install lightning rods? Should one allow photographs?" But these arguments uniquely reflected the social climate of that day, and the modernist is reminded that similar questions of culture exist today over abortion, civil rights, economic disparity, genetic engineering, and sexuality. Only the labels have changed, for people residing in culturally different localities will predictably disagree over social conventions, ethics, and theology because they perceive their environment and their God much differently.
Culturally different voices gave expression at Annual Meeting representing fundamentally different perceptions of the Brethren experience. The Old Orders or Primitives viewed members, although in separate congregations, as single units of the greater body of the church. Elders supervised individual congregations and stood in harmony with each other at the Annual Meeting; thus, the yearly gathering was esteemed as the ultimate seat of denominational authority. Furthermore, it was held every year on Pentecost, so as to parallel their decision making with the original infilling of the Holy Spirit. This almost mystical association was to hopefully invite the Spirit to, likewise, fill the attendants of Annual Meeting with spiritual wisdom to make the proper decisions. Additionally, these decisions were arrived through consensus or unanimity of opinion, so as to maintain harmony throughout the body. Conversely, Progressives viewed members as units of autonomous congregations which did not necessarily require a yearly conference; thus, each congregation should be its own seat of authority. Furthermore, the innovation of democratic rule (by majority) at Annual Meeting was heralded as progress, because it hastened parliamentary action, instead of the protracted discussions necessary to arrive at consensus. Unfortunately, this always produces a minority opinion which lacks the unanimity and harmony of consensus enjoyed by the Primitives or Old Orders. During the 1870's, a small Progressive group began leading the church to implement innovations that were considered by the vast majority of moderates as too worldly. At the same time, a small group of Old Orders desired implementation of measures to preserve historic values that were similarly perceived by the moderates as too restrictive. The insistence of each group to have their own way fractured the German Baptist Brethren, with the Older Orders breaking away from Annual Meeting in 1881 to form the Old German Baptist Brethren; and two years after Progressive leader H.R. Holsinger was repudiated or disowned by the Annual Meeting of 1882, this more liberal arm seceded to form The Brethren Church. These divisions actually freed the central group of moderates (called Conservatives) from the insistence of both parties, to finally regain the momentum of their own denominational vision. But it would take years for that vision to crystallize, because the constant infighting at Annual Meeting had left them without a clear identity.
Although dismayed by the series of events for many years, the moderates gradually devised a course for the future. In the 1904-1906 Annual Meetings they felt the need for a new identity with a new denominational name, for at least three reasons: (1) Brethren had been predominately speaking English since about 1850, (2) the label German gradually seemed less and less descriptive of their evolving culture, and (3) a new label would hopefully disassociate them from the unpleasant divisiveness of the recent past. Originally known as the Schwarzenau Baptists, they assumed the name of German Baptist Brethren in their New World migrations, since few people in America would have any idea where Schwarzenau is located. Much aware that they were no longer strictly German and now also eschewing the title Baptist, the remaining word Brethren was the only thing left that would still retain their heritage. In 1908, Annual Conference (previously called Annual Meeting) would formally adopt the denominational label, Church of the Brethren. They were...
...starting a new century with a new name.
Photo Credits:
- Spring House photo submitted by Richard Judy from The History of the Church of the Brethren: Northeastern Ohio, 1914, and drawn from memory by Irene Kurtz Summers, granddaughter of Elder Henry Kurtz, and retouched by Mrs. F.E. Moherman.
- Photo of Elder Christian Winey, a dearly beloved gentle spirit, who exhibited strong and caring leadership in the Lost Creek COB (now Bunkertown, PA Southern)
- Graphic collection of early Brethren publications from Brethren Historical Library & Archives.
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"And when James, Cephas, and John,
who seemed to be pillars,
perceived the grace that was given unto me,
they gave to me and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship;
that we should go unto (one group)
and they unto (another group)."
Galatians 2:9
